The alternative method of enforcing the MixedData structure to be aligned to a one byte boundary will cause the pre-processor to discard the pre-determined alignment of the structure members and thus no padding bytes would be inserted. For example, the number of endpoints in the interface is set in the bNumEndpoints member of USB_INTERFACE_DESCRIPTOR. Opening the device and obtaining WinUSB handle. A long long type must be at least 64 bits wide. In Y, there's 1 byte padding after the char to make sure the 2 byte short starts on a 2 byte boundary. Used to select the specified bit position. This allows each member of an array of structures to be properly aligned. The ARMv6 and later architectures support unaligned access in many circumstances, but not necessarily all. Casting to a double or long double will work too, yet could provide inexact decimal output. Note: this allows the extreme case in which bytes are sized 64 bits, all types (including char) are 64 bits wide, and sizeof returns 1 for every type. Integer and floating types are collectively called arithmetic types. The point is that the "need-to-know" the type is rare. The request codes and buffer formats are vendor defined. 64-bit aligned is 8bytes aligned). The time_t Wikipedia article article sheds some light on this. Here is a structure with members of various types, totaling 8bytes before compilation: After compilation the data structure will be supplemented with padding bytes to ensure a proper alignment for each of its members: The compiled size of the structure is now 12bytes. Although such failures are rare, they can be very difficult to identify. Browse other questions tagged, Where developers & technologists share private knowledge with coworkers, Reach developers & technologists worldwide. Type naming. For maximum portability, use CHAR_BIT rather than 8. Next, query the device for USB-specific information such as device speed, interface descriptors, related endpoints, and their pipes. So fundamental they just call it "C." These articles will walk you through the basics of one of the most foundational computer languages in the world. returned from the standard time() The primary purpose of the default endpoint is to provide the host with information that it can use to configure the device. Computing the maximum amount of padding required is more complicated, but is always less than the sum of the alignment requirements for all members minus twice the sum of the alignment requirements for the least aligned half of the structure members. Reading and writing data to bulk and interrupt endpoints. When would I give a checkpoint to my D&D party that they can return to if they die? The minimal amount of padding required is always less than the largest alignment in the structure. Oops, no more backup. Examples of frauds discovered because someone tried to mimic a random sequence. When applied to a class type, the result is the number of bytes occupied by a complete object of that class, including any additional padding required to place such object in This file contains bidirectional Unicode text that may be interpreted or compiled differently than what appears below. Also unspecified are the meanings of So, in X, there's 2 bytes of padding after the short to ensure the 4 byte int starts on a 4 byte boundary. The procedure is similar to the one that USB device drivers use. CPU_EQUAL() and CPU_EQUAL_S() return nonzero if the two CPU sets are equal; otherwise they return 0. How is the merkle root verified if the mempools may be different? A memory address a is said to be n-byte aligned when a is a multiple of n (where n is a power of 2). @ Magnus: The standard defines sizeof as yielding the number of bytes in the object and that sizeof (char) is always one. The alternate wording b-bit aligned designates a b/8byte aligned address (ex. pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/, preprocessor invocation like that suggested by Quassnoi. For devices that support multiple interfaces, call WinUsb_GetAssociatedInterface to obtain interface handles for associated interfaces by specifying the alternative settings in the AssociatedInterfaceIndex parameter. In 2000, that value is 100, obviously. The following items apply to this walkthrough: To access a USB device, start by creating a skeleton app based on the WinUSB template included in the integrated environment of Windows Driver Kit (WDK) (with Debugging Tools for Windows) and Microsoft Visual Studio. p: Print the value of 2, raised to the power of the given constant. It doesn't change the value of the data or add any new data. For me, it's /usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu/bits/types.h. You can use the template as a starting point. This is always combined with native byte order. The source code is available for download below. As long as the memory word size is at least as large as the largest primitive data type supported by the computer, aligned accesses will always access a single memory word. Return the index of the overlay icon. The above directives are available in compilers from Microsoft,[9] Borland, GNU,[10] and many others. Site design / logo 2022 Stack Exchange Inc; user contributions licensed under CC BY-SA. Construct a setup packet in a caller-allocated WINUSB_SETUP_PACKET structure. [out] data: The data item that was previously associated with the currently running Agent by a call to napi_set_instance_data(). values. The include files support setting the OPENSSL_API_COMPAT define that will hide functions that are deprecated in the selected version. if I translate the time into a format, and send a string, it's inefficient and slow. Help us identify new roles for community members, Proposing a Community-Specific Closure Reason for non-English content. The following list shows the WinUSB functions that you can call to get USB-specific information: Call WinUsb_QueryDeviceInformation to request information from the device descriptors for the device. WinUsb_QueryInterfaceSettings fills the caller-allocated USB_INTERFACE_DESCRIPTOR structure (passed in the UsbAltInterfaceDescriptor parameter) with information about the interface. If a device returns more data than was requested, WinUSB saves the excess data. Padding is only inserted when a structure member is followed by a member with a larger alignment requirement or at the end of the structure. ctx->cert_store - we were directly accessing the cert_store field of SSL_CTX. However, I need to understand the type a bit more because I don't want the number to get mangled up by differing endianness between systems, so i need to use htonl but first, on a need to know basis, I want to find out the underlying type ;). "%02d" pads with two zeros but does not truncate if longer than two digits. Note that Padding1[1] has been replaced (and thus eliminated) by Data4 and Padding2[3] is no longer necessary as the structure is already aligned to the size of a long word. An integer value of type T whose object representation comprises the bytes of that of n in reversed order. Step by step descriptive logic to left rotate bits of a number. @WayneO The amount of padding is always enough to make sure that whatever is next is aligned according to its size. [11] This leads to interoperability problems with library headers which use, for example, #pragma pack(8), if the project packing is smaller than this. Unix and POSIX-compliant systems implement the time_t type as a signed ings and numbers and bits like that. However, the application completes device queries by calling WinUsb_GetDescriptor. SSL_SESSION->ssl_version. That makes the Y2038 problem to not really be a problem. Basic C programming, Bitwise operators, Functions. SHGFI_PIDL (0x000000008) Indicate that pszPath is the address of an ITEMIDLIST structure rather than a path name. On the OSR USB FX2 device, these two endpoints are configured for loopback, so the device moves data from the bulk-in endpoint to the bulk-out endpoint. C provides. not specify any particular type, uID. When a memory access is not aligned, it is said to be misaligned. A long type must be at least 32 bits wide. This page was last edited on 3 April 2017, at 22:23. time_t is 32bits on the arm, and 64bits on the server. The time_t datatype is a data type in -d: Debug Output. Similar to left shift, right shift operations also results in bit loss. Instead, it is usually a region of memory that's aligned on a 4KiB boundary. A patch was provided at Pull Request #48, Make it build using OpenSSL 1.1.0 in September 2016, but it was not acted upon. For example, if members are sorted by descending alignment requirements a minimal amount of padding is required. This information applies to Windows8.1, Windows8, Windows7, Windows Server2008, WindowsVista versions of Windows. The original. Store it in some variable say. Note: INT_BITS is total number of bits in integer - 1. Instead of dropping MSB on each rotation, Least Significant Bit (LSB) should get replaced as dropped MSB. Find centralized, trusted content and collaborate around the technologies you use most. r: Inverse of condition code, for signed comparisons. What are the criteria for a protest to be a strong incentivizing factor for policy change in China? [out] lpNumberOfBytesRecvd. This page discusses the API changes for OpenSSL version 1.1. WinUSB functions require Windows XP or later. You can further decay above two functions as. midnight UTC of January 1, 1970 (not I'm in a need to know situation because i need to transfer time from an ARM system to an AMD64 system. You could verify this in these header files: time.h: /usr/include Are you sure you want to create this branch? Note that the definitions above assume that each primitive datum is a power of two bytes long. For example code that gets the device handle and opens the device (GetDeviceHandle and GetWinUSBHandle in this example), see Template code discussion. The number of WSABUF structures in the lpBuffers array. The number of bits in a byte is implementation specific. ISO C defines To determine the pipe type, examine the WINUSB_PIPE_INFORMATION structure's PipeInfo member. The correct way is (change to last line only): New question: What's the rationale for that thinking? arithmetic operations applied to time A long long type must be at least 64 bits wide. The size of this structure, in bytes. While there is no standard way of defining the alignment of structure members, some compilers use #pragma directives to specify packing inside source files. spi: spidev_test: Warn when the mode is not the requested mode, https://lore.kernel.org/r/YqbNnSGtWHe/GG7w@spacedout.fries.net, Learn more about bidirectional Unicode characters, rx_rate = ((_read_count - prev_read_count) *, tx_rate = ((_write_count - prev_write_count) *. The structure will then start at 0x5a0, which is a multiple of 4. To answer paxdiablo's query, I'd say that it printed "19100" because the program was written this way (and I admit I did this myself in the '80's): The printf statement prints the fixed string "Year is: 19" followed by a zero-padded string with the "years since 1900" (definition of tm->tm_year). To avoid UI code, the example code in this section sets the bits so that alternate lights get lit up. If your device supports isochronous endpoints, you can use WinUSB functions to send transfers. DH - we were directly accessing p and q to set the DH params to primes embedded in Qt. time_t is of type long int on 64 bit machines, else it is long long int. I recall my concern as even though OP found, That usually works, but if your program is meant to keep track of things that will happen 30 years from now, it's pretty important that you. Although use of "packed" structures is most frequently used to conserve memory space, it may also be used to format a data structure for transmission using a standard protocol. Basic C programming, Bitwise operators, Functions. Native size and alignment are determined using the C compilers sizeof expression. For more information, see Send USB isochronous transfers from a WinUSB desktop app. You can just grep, or use a preprocessor invocation like that suggested by Quassnoi to see which specific header. In that case, skip steps 1 through 3 and proceed from step 4 in this article. EDKII is the reference implementation of UEFI firmware. That handle is stored in the app-defined DEVICE_DATA structure in device.h. The OG. time_t as an arithmetic type, but does In C++, the file stream classes are designed with the idea that a file should simply be viewed as a stream or array of uninterpreted bytes. A large array of such structures would use 37.5% less memory if they are packed, although accessing each structure might take longer. The template enumerates devices by using SetupAPI routines, opens a file handle for the device, and creates a WinUSB interface handle required for subsequent tasks. This requires a lot of complex circuitry to generate the memory accesses and coordinate them. Here's what's broken in the dev branch of Qt when building openssl master as of 6 Feb 2015. But left shift operator drops Most Significant Bit (MSB) on each shift. Although the compiler (or interpreter) normally allocates individual data items on aligned boundaries, data structures often have members with different alignment requirements. The same constraints on arguments apply as for the corresponding __atomic_op_fetch built-in functions. The OSR USB FX2 device supports an interrupt pipe, a bulk-in pipe, and a bulk-out pipe, so PipeInfo is set to either UsbdPipeTypeInterrupt or UsbdPipeTypeBulk. A name can be declared to refer to a type by means of: class declaration; union declaration; enum declaration; typedef declaration; What we need to do is, instead of dropping the least significant bit replace most significant bit with the dropped least significant bit. For instance if the old code did: If you want to access rsa->n you now have to do something like: There are new functions available for to get and set such variables that are not available in older versions. Constructing a complete object type such that the number of bytes in its object representation is not representable in the type std::size_t (i.e. ings and numbers and bits like that. For example, a structure containing a single byte and a four-byte integer would require three additional bytes of padding. Casting to the widest integer type will accommodate most modern cases. Various functions get deprecated as other interfaces get added, but are still available in a default build. How to rotate bits of a given number using bitwise operator in C programming. Rotating bits of a number to left, means shifting all bits to left and pushing the dropped Most Significant Bit to Least Significant Bit. cipher->valid - we were directly accessing the valid field of SSL_CIPHER. In short Pankaj is Web developer, Blogger, Learner, Tech and Music lover. If you are an end-user of bpftrace, you should not normally need the -d or -v options, and you can skip to the Its arguments are zero-indexed parameter numbers; if one argument is provided, then its assumed that at least CallSite.Args[EltSizeParam] bytes will be available at hWnd. Rotating bits of a number to right, means shifting all bits to right and pushing the dropped Least Significant Bit to Most Significant Bit. The UsbdPipeTypeBulk value identifies bulk pipes, but doesn't provide the pipe's direction. HMAC_Init and HMAC_cleanup were previously stated in the docs and header files as being deprecated - but were not flagged in previous versions with OPENSSL_NO_DEPRECATED. Here is an example: This structure would have a compiled size of 6bytes on a 32-bit system. openssl-compat.tar.gz - openssl-compat.tar.gz includes sources files openssl-compat.h and openssl-compat.c. WinUsb_QueryPipe populates the caller-allocated WINUSB_PIPE_INFORMATION structure with information about the specified endpoint's pipe. CHAR_BIT number of bits for smallest object that is not a bit-field (byte) C11dr 5.2.4.2.1 1. * differs from the requested mode, warn the user. For more information about this process, see, The examples in this article are based on the. This answer is just addressing the question asked of what __time_t is defined as. Note that by definition byte memory accesses are always aligned. A short type must be at least 16 bits wide. sizeof cannot be used with function types, incomplete types, or bit-field lvalues (until C++11) glvalues (since C++11).. So modern C libraries should be defining it to be a signed 64-bit int instead, which is safe for a few billion years. The bottom line is that the type of time_t is not guaranteed in the C specification.. Robust code does not care what the type is. IMAGE_REL_SH3_SIZEOF_SECTION : 0x000D : { 2: return -1 * i; 3: } COFF Symbol Table. Which is what we don't want. Rotating bits of a number to left, means shifting all bits to left and pushing the dropped Most Significant Bit to Least Significant Bit. There is small difference in logic of left and right rotation of number. However, devices can also use the default endpoint for device-specific purposes. In this article Summary. It is an extension because it makes a stronger guarantee: floating points are out. This might not be true, for example, on a system using 9-bit bytes or 60-bit words. header. They could be found in the resp. However, when the alignment of offset is already equal to that of align, the second modulo in (align - (offset mod align)) mod align will return zero, therefore the original value is left unchanged. Improve INSERT-per-second performance of SQLite. This is because aligning a page on a page-sized boundary lets the hardware map a virtual address to a physical address by substituting the higher bits in the address, rather than doing complex arithmetic. Reverses the bytes in the given integer value n.. std::byteswap participates in overload resolution only if T satisfies integral, i.e., T is an integer type. system time values. The WinUSB interface handle corresponds to the first interface. Under Visual Studio 2008, it defaults to an __int64 unless you define _USE_32BIT_TIME_T. The user doesn't enter the mode in hex so it isn't obvious when setting the mode succeeds that the mode isn't the requested mode. For more information about the template, see Write a Windows desktop app based on the WinUSB template. For example, it is returned by net.createConnection(), so the user can use it to talk to the server. Next, send data to the device's bulk-in and bulk-out endpoints that can be used for read and write requests, respectively. Each WSABUF structure contains a pointer to a buffer and the length, in bytes, of the buffer. Reverses the bytes in the given integer value n. std::byteswap participates in overload resolution only if T satisfies integral, i.e., T is an integer type. It is possible to change the alignment of structures to reduce the memory they require (or to conform to an existing format) by reordering structure members or changing the compiler's alignment (or packing) of structure members. ), and executes it. The function returns LowSpeed (0x01) or HighSpeed (0x03). In this example the total size of the structure sizeof(FinalPadShort) == 6, not 5 (not 8 either) (so that the size is a multiple of 2 (alignment(short) = 2 on linux-32bit/gcc)). I want to be able to quit Finder but can't edit Finder's Info.plist after disabling SIP, Connecting three parallel LED strips to the same power supply, Obtain closed paths using Tikz random decoration on circles. Access to these functions/macros will be off by default in 1.1.0 as per the note above about deprecation. Follow on: Twitter | Google | Website or View all posts by Pankaj, C program to search element in array using pointers, C program to sort an array using pointers. library function. typedef defined in the standard This is compatible with openssl versions that don't have the dh_auto option. which represents the number of seconds Getting information about the device, configuration, and interface settings of all interfaces, and their endpoints. Alignment concerns can affect areas much larger than a C structure when the purpose is the efficient mapping of that area through a hardware address translation mechanism (PCI remapping, operation of a MMU). I searched my Linux box and saw this typedef: But I could not find the __time_t definition. sizeof is a unary operator in the programming languages C and C++.It generates the storage size of an expression or a data type, measured in the number of char-sized units.Consequently, the construct sizeof (char) is guaranteed to be 1.The actual number of bits of type char is specified by the preprocessor macro CHAR_BIT, defined in the standard include file limits.h. No need to create a file as mentioned by Quassnoi: On Ubuntu 15.10 GCC 5.2 the top two lines are: Command breakdown with some quotes from man gcc: The answer is definitely implementation-specific. For information about the template code, how to create, build, deploy, and debug the skeleton app, see Write a Windows desktop app based on the WinUSB template. Some processor designs deliberately avoid introducing such complexity, and instead yield alternative behavior in the event of a misaligned memory access. size in bytes of the C type used to represent a digit. Upgrade to Microsoft Edge to take advantage of the latest features, security updates, and technical support. You could use typeid to find out how time_t is defined in your system. This is also referred to as virtually indexed (ABC) physically tagged (12345). scancode-ascii-table could be compressed better, it has a bunch of zeros in it currently, all near the start! You can use these functions in your C/C++ application to communicate with your USB device. You signed in with another tab or window. correctly handle negative time values, To get the device's speed, set DEVICE_SPEED (0x01) in the InformationType parameter. If the buffer is large enough to contain all of the data, this function succeeds and ReturnLength is set to the number of bytes returned. If an array is partitioned for more than one thread to operate on, having the sub-array boundaries unaligned to cache lines could lead to performance degradation. range, resolution, or encoding for it. The CPU in modern computer hardware performs reads and writes to memory most efficiently when the data is naturally aligned, which generally means that the data's memory address is a multiple of the data size. Left rotation of bits in C is supported using bitwise left shift operator <<. This feature is only supported in Windows8.1. However, in this usage, care must also be taken to ensure that the values of the struct members are stored with the endianness required by the protocol (often network byte order), which may be different from the endianness used natively by the host machine. This API retrieves data that was previously associated with the currently running Set this member to sizeof (DEVMODE) to indicate the version of the DEVMODE structure being used. It is also an EventEmitter.. A net.Socket can be created by the user and used directly to interact with a server. The application could provide a set of eight check box controls to specify which elements of the light bar should be lit. Effect of coal and natural gas burning on particulate matter pollution. Return the size of an object in bytes. Step by step descriptive logic to right rotate bits of a number. x The CPU accesses memory by a single memory word at a time. The size of this structure would be 6bytes. After you've completed all the required calls to the device, release the file handle and the WinUSB interface handle for the device by calling the following functions: The following code example shows the main function of your console application. One use for such "packed" structures is to conserve memory. A handle to the window that receives notifications associated with an icon in the notification area. napi_status napi_get_instance_data (napi_env env, void ** data); [in] env: The environment that the Node-API call is invoked under. But I agree that for a generic case (where time_t may not be typedeffed to __time_t), you would need to grep for time_t first, and then possibly grep again for what that returns, @MichaelFirth Fair enough. In order to simulate "resume" of a DTLS session which never really existed but which was actually negotiated over the VPN control connection, this code in the OpenConnect VPN client needs to set the following fields in a new SSL_SESSION: This was fixed with this OpenConnect commit which makes it create the ASN.1 representation of the session and import it with d2i_SSL_SESSION(). When this is not the case (as with 80-bit floating-point on x86) the context influences the conditions where the datum is considered aligned or not. Typically you will find these underlying implementation-specific typedefs for gcc in the bits or asm header directory. 0 contributors Users who have contributed to this file The symbol table in this section is inherited from the traditional COFF format. This page has been accessed 30,913 times. Besides the minimal bit counts, the C++ Standard guarantees that 1 == sizeof (char) <= sizeof (short) <= sizeof (int) <= sizeof (long) <= sizeof (long long).. Is it possible to hide or delete the new Toolbar in 13.1? the Year 2038 problem. Opening the device and obtaining WinUSB handle. The hardware can implement this translation by simply combining the first 20bits of the physical address (0x12345) and the last 12bits of the virtual address (0xABC). It would be beneficial to allocate memory aligned to cache lines. To find out definitively for your platform/compiler, just add this output somewhere in your code: If the answer is 4 (32 bits) and your data is meant to go beyond 2038, then you have 25 years to migrate your code. If you just "subtract and print the result", then you will possibly get what you expect on a system with a signed time_t, but not with an unsigned time_t. To ensure natural alignment, it may be necessary to insert some padding between structure elements or after the last element of a structure. However, that causes your code to suffer from the year 2038 bug. Many Git commands accept both tag and branch names, so creating this branch may cause unexpected behavior. default_max_str_digits. 1) Build OpenSSL with deprecation support (pass "enable-deprecated" as an argument to config) 2) Applications must define "OPENSSL_USE_DEPRECATED" before including OpenSSL header files. The OSR Fx2 device has one interface that has three endpoints. If the specified size of the bit-field is greater than the size of its type, the value is limited by the type: a std:: uint8_t b : 1000; would still hold values between 0 and 255. the extra bits are padding bits.. Because bit-fields do not necessarily begin at the beginning of a byte, address of a bit-field cannot be taken. You should use the provided accessor functions instead, bn, a sub library in libcrypto, has been made opaque, Access to deprecated functions/macros has been removed by default. the dmDisplayFrequency member may return with the value 0 or 1. Is the EU Border Guard Agency able to tell Russian passports issued in Ukraine or Georgia from the legitimate ones. On some Microsoft compilers, particularly for RISC processors, there is an unexpected relationship between project default packing (the /Zp directive) and the #pragma pack directive. counting leap seconds). We do not currently allow content pasted from ChatGPT on Stack Overflow; read our policy here. Accessing data located at virtual address va=0x2CFC7ABC causes a TLB resolution of 0x2CFC7 to 0x12345 to issue a physical access to pa=0x12345ABC. The language supports short, long, and long long modifiers. For example, on a 32-bit machine, a data structure containing a 16-bit value followed by a 32-bit value could have 16 bits of padding between the 16-bit value and the 32-bit value to align the 32-bit value on a 32-bit boundary. Note, however, that time_t values are usually only stored in memory, not on disk. What happens if you score more than 99 points in volleyball? What is meant by rotating bits of a number. What is the bit size of long on 64-bit Windows? The simplest way to determine the direction of the pipe is to pass the PipeId value to one of the following macros from Usb100.h: The application uses the PipeId value to identify which pipe to use for data transfer in calls to WinUSB functions, such as WinUsb_ReadPipe (described in the "Issue I/O Requests" section of this topic), so the example stores all three PipeId values for later use. https://en.cppreference.com/mwiki/index.php?title=cpp/numeric/byteswap&oldid=141900, computes the result of bitwise left-rotation, computes the result of bitwise right-rotation. Allocate a 1-byte data buffer and load the data into the buffer that specifies the elements that should be lit by setting the appropriate bits. I have explained logic of both problems separately. The counts of bits set in the bytes is done in parallel, and the sum total of the bits set in the bytes is computed by multiplying by 0x1010101 and shifting right 24 bits. Some systems For instance, on a 32-bit operating system, a 4KiB (4096 Bytes) page is not just an arbitrary 4KiB chunk of data. Therefore it's much better to just send the entire time_t and sort it out on the server end. A Vertex Array Object (VAO) is an OpenGL Object that stores all of the state needed to supply vertex data (with one minor exception noted below). The files provide the OpenSSL 1.1.0 compatibility layer for OpenSSL 1.0.2 and below users. This member is set to one of the USBD_PIPE_TYPE enumeration values: UsbdPipeTypeControl, UsbdPipeTypeIsochronous, UsbdPipeTypeBulk, or UsbdPipeTypeInterrupt. BTW, we only found one Y2K bug and that was a web page which listed the date as Jan 1, 19100. If you're using Microsoft Visual Studio2013, create your skeleton app by using the WinUSB template. @MichaelFirth Cases exist for both integer signed time_t and unsigned time_t where raw subtraction will result in unexpected results. Edit: ANSI C++ standard section 5.3.3 Sizeof: "The sizeof operator yields the number of bytes in the object representation of its operand. The -d option produces debug output, and does not run the program. The example stores all three PipeId values for later use. This commit does not belong to any branch on this repository, and may belong to a fork outside of the repository. the result type of sizeof operator) is ill-formed. Therefore, for these devices the AlternateSettingNumber parameter is set to zero and the function is called only one time. Your data will be fine if you store your data as a string, even if it's something simple like: Then just read it back the same way (fread, fscanf, etc. If you find your library or program used to work with OpenSSL 1.0.2 but no longer works with OpenSSL 1.1.0, then please add details to discussion below at Things that no longer work. Example: Assume that we have a TLB mapping of virtual address 0x2CFC7000 to physical address 0x12345000. It consists of three separate but related issues: data alignment, data structure padding, and packing. A value of something than 8 is increasingly uncommon. Python integers are stored internally in base 2**int_info.bits_per_digit. For example, implementations of the ARM architecture prior to the ARMv6 ISA require mandatory aligned memory access for all multi-byte load and store instructions. When a single memory word is accessed the operation is atomic, i.e. By changing the ordering of members in a structure, it is possible to change the amount of padding required to maintain alignment. The application-defined identifier of the taskbar icon. To maintain proper alignment the translator normally inserts additional unnamed data members so that each member is properly aligned. Getting information about the device, configuration, and interface settings of all interfaces, and their endpoints. A generalization of the best bit counting method to integers of bit-widths upto 128 (parameterized by type T) is this: It even could be unsigned as the return values from many time function indicating error is not -1, but (time_t)(-1) - This implementation choice is uncommon. in bits per pixel, of the display device (for example: 4 bits for 16 colors, 8 bits for 256 colors, or 16 bits for 65,536 colors). In this context, a byte is the smallest unit of memory access, i.e. [This turned out not to be needed and so will be removed]. sizeof_digit. The Shell uses either (hWnd plus uID) or guidItem to identify which icon to operate on when Shell_NotifyIcon is invoked. This is how a dynamic allocator that has no knowledge of alignment, can be used to provide aligned buffers, at the price of a factor two in space loss. You might need to create backward compatible macros or functions if you still want to support older versions of OpenSSL. C species time_t to be a real type like double, long long, int64_t, int, etc. The following typical alignments are valid for compilers from Microsoft (Visual C++), Borland/CodeGear (C++Builder), Digital Mars (DMC), and GNU (GCC) when compiling for 32-bit x86: The only notable differences in alignment for an LP64 64-bit system when compared to a 32-bit system are: Some data types are dependent on the implementation. Return types By default functions are assumed to return the C int type. No replacement found. A suggested way of doing that is: Application code now has to use pointers, and cannot allocate objects directly on the stack. Print a warning if the device mode doesn't match the requested mode. We can probably replace this with SSL_CTX_set_dh_auto(ctx, 1). When applied to a reference type, the result is the size of the referenced type. Some USB devices, such as the OSR Fx2 device, support only one interface without any alternative setting. 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